The Sat Essay Research Paper English 101004Research free essay sample

The Sat Essay, Research Paper English 101.004 Research Paper March 1, 2000 Does the SAT show a direct correlativity with a pupil? s success rate during his first semester of college? About every individual who is of the age of 18 or older has encountered some kind of standardised trial at some clip in their lives. Whether or non they scored as they had hoped, is a different narrative. Some people have seen that the mark that they had received on a trial wasn # 8217 ; t needfully an accurate portraiture of the manner that they were traveling to win at what they were proving for. Many colleges throughout the United States require a peculiar mark from the SAT # 8217 ; s for entree to their establishment. Does that peculiar trial mark reflect how the pupil is traveling to make in college? Of class it doesn # 8217 ; t. The SAT is no longer an aptitude trial. The SAT is besides non a valid trial. We will write a custom essay sample on The Sat Essay Research Paper English 101004Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The SAT # 8217 ; s besides fail to demo how difficult a pupil works at something, and the possible that they may hold. What is the SAT? Harmonizing to Good ( 1957 ) , the scholastic-aptitude trial is # 8220 ; a trial used to foretell the installation with which the person will come on in larning academic school topics # 8221 ; ( 602 ) . This tells us that the SAT is an aptitude trial. An aptitude trial is # 8220 ; a trial for finding the chance of a individual # 8217 ; s success in some activity in which he is non yet trained # 8221 ; ( Neufeldt 68 ; 1991 ) . The definitions given supra state what the SAT is, and what it does. Not all people agree with this idea. Does the SAT needfully state a high school pupil what sort of classs they are traveling to have their first semester of college? Does the SAT truly prove aptitude? Harmonizing to some experts on the subject, even though the word aptitude appears in the acronym, the trial itself has barely anything to make with aptitude at all ( Lemann # ? ? ; Dejnozka and Kapel ; 456 ) The trial is now more likely correlated with an intelligence trial a nd an achievement trial. Harmonizing to Deighton ( 1971 ) # 8220 ; No trial is valid for all intents, in all state of affairss, or for all groups of pupils ( 165 ) . This is giving an overall statement that no trial can possibley show that it is a valid trial. But, even if the trial did demo worthiness to the effectivity of it # 8217 ; s proclaimed anticipations, it would still be unable to foretell the future result of the pupils GPA as a college pupil. If the SAT could foretell such a thing, so there would be prognostic cogency shown by the tonss of the trials. # 8220 ; Predictive cogency is the proof of Scholastic Aptitude Test ( SAT ) scores as a step of academic ability by their correlativity with subsequent pupil grade-point norms ( Alkin et al. 1330 ) . The SAT can be a slightly nice forecaster of college result, but non the best when used entirely. Lemann ( 1999 ) says â€Å"†¦.the SAT is built to make one simple thing: predict what a high school senior’s grade-point norm will be in the first sememster of college. It does this good enought to be utile, though non good plenty to be omniscient ( newpaper page? ) . If the SAT # 8217 ; s are non considered an aptitude trial any longer, so why topographic point so much accent on making good on them? The ground being is that many colleges take into consideration the mark that the pupil has received on the SAT as portion of their entryway scrutiny. The colleges should non take such a drastic expression at the SAT # 8217 ; s, and should pay more attending to the classs that the pupil had received in high school. When used in combination with other factors, the SAT so becomes a utile assistance for college entryway credence. # 8220 ; SAT tonss, when used together with high school classs or category rank, are better forecasters of college class point norm than are SAT tonss entirely # 8221 ; ( Dejnizka and Kapel 456 ) . The SAT is still used to assist do the determinations as to who gets into some schools, eventhough it is entirely a rough manner at acknowledging a pupil. The SAT is no longer an aptitude trial, shows no cogency, and does an extrememly hapless occupation at demoing the ability of the pupil. However, when the SAT is used in concurrence with other factors such as high school GPA, an interview with the pupil, an entryway essay, etc. , so it may be a partly acceptable agencies of anticipation. Not the best paper that I have of all time written, but hope it helps. Brazziel, William F. ? Bettering SAT Tonss: Professionals, Cons, Methods. ? The Journal of Negro Education. 57 ( 1988 ) : 81. Deighton, Lee C. ? Test Validity? The Encyclopedia of Education. New York: MacMillian C A ; TFP, 1971. Dejnozka, Edward L. , and David E. Kapel. Ed. American Educators? Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1982. Good, Carter V. , and Winifred R. Merkel. Dictionary of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill BC, 1957. Lemann, Nicholas. ? Puttering With The Test. ? New York Times 13 Sept. 1999, OP-ED. Lawlor, Sarah, et. Al. ? The Validity Of Using The SAT As A Criterion For Black And White Students Admission To College. ? College Student Journal 31 ( 1997 ) : 507.

Wyatt vs. Stickney and Social Welfare Policy Essay Example

Wyatt vs. Stickney and Social Welfare Policy Essay The late Dr. Stonewall B. Stickney was a writer for The Harbinger between the years 1986 and 1996. It is while at this job that he penned a column titled Ask Dr. Salvo. Dr. Stickney, or Stone, as he was known by his friends, was a crucial figure in the field of public health psychiatry (Yarbruogh, 2001). He played a critical role in public health in his capacity as the Alabama State Commissioner of Mental Health (Raskin, 2004). It was at this time that the Supreme Court ruling of 1971 found it unconstitutional the way mental health patients were housed in state institutions for long periods without any treatment being administered to them. Consequently Dr. Stonewall initiated the famous Wyatt vs. Stickney lawsuit. This suit did not start out with that name initially, but was filed by a group of psychologists from the University of Alabama (Minis Freyer, 2001). Stone and the Alabama Board of Mental Health wanted to make some big changes. There was a shortfall in funding due to cigarette taxes. Their rationale was to lay off some members of staff, starting with some of the executives at the top. They wanted to keep most caregivers there that were with the patients most of the time. At that time, the two sources of employers in Tuscaloosa were the University of Alabama and Bryce and Partlow Hospitals. We will write a custom essay sample on Wyatt vs. Stickney and Social Welfare Policy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Wyatt vs. Stickney and Social Welfare Policy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Wyatt vs. Stickney and Social Welfare Policy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In October 1970, Ricky Wyatt, a fifteen-year-old boy who had always been labeled a juvenile delinquent and who stayed at Bryce despite not being diagnosed with a mental illness, became the named plaintiff in the Wyatt vs. Stickney lawsuit (Yarbruogh, 2001). His aunt, W. C. Rawlins, was one of the employees at the Bryce hospital who  had been sent off. Together, the two testified about intolerable conditions and improper treatments and care designed only to make the patients more manageable. In 1971, the plaintiff class was expanded to accommodate patients at Alabamas two other mental health facilities. These were Searcy Hospital and Camp Partlow (Raskin, 2004). The resultant court ordered agreements formed the basis for federal minimum standards for the care of patients with mental illness or mental retardations who resided in institutional settings. Wyatt vs. Stickney In 1999, a new settlement agreement was enacted leading to a great and substantial level of progress. The case was finally dismissed on December 5, 2003, with the finding by Judge that Alabama was in compliant with the agreement (Minis Freyer, 2001). The standards elaborated in that agreement have over the years served as a masterpiece nationwide. Referred to as the Wyatt Standards, they are founded on four pre-requisites of care: l Humanely Psychological and Physical Surrounding The environment and surroundings within which the mental patients were to be held, according to this agreement, had to cater for their physical and psychological wellbeing (Raskin, 2004). This included the treatment from the members of staff. l Qualified , Competent and Sufficient Staff for Administration of Treatment The members of staff for the institutions had to meet three criteria. They must be qualified to handle the duties that they are entrusted with. The members of staff also have to be competent, meaning that they can effectively perform their duties. The members of staff also have to be adequate to handle the number of patients that they are entrusted with. This will greatly reduce the health care giver to patient ratio. l Individualized Treatment Plans and Programs According to this settlement, the one size fits all programs will no longer apply. Every patient has to be treated individually, given that each and every patient has unique needs and requirements. l Minimal Restriction of Patients Freedom This standard recognizes that despite their status as patients, the latter do not cease to be human beings (Yackle, 2004). As such, the restrictions imposed on their freedom by the care givers have to be minimal. The case of Wyatt vs. Stickney came to a conclusion after 33 years (Yackle, 2004). It spanned through nine Alabama governors and fourteen state mental health commissioners. As a result of this, it is regarded as the longest running mental health case in national history (La Fond Dulham, 2002). Relationship between Past Events and the Current Policy In 1970, Alabama was ranked last among American states in funding for mental health. Bryce Hospital at that time had 5,200 mental patients living in conditions that were akin to those of a concentration camp (Springer, 2005). The same year, a tax on cigarette aimed at mental health treatment was slashed. One hundred Bryce employees were sent off, including twenty members of professional staff (Yackle, 2004). Members belonging to the Department of Psychology at the Alabama University attempted to file a lawsuit on behalf of the laid down workers, but Johnson Federal Judge ruled that the courts had no powers to intervene on behalf of fired employees (Weiner Wettstein, 2002). The judge however pointed out the possibility of a suit being filed on behalf of patients, whose quality of care was badly affected (Weiner Wettstein, 2002). The historic 1970 Alabama case recognized for the first time that the constitutional rights of mentally disabled patients living in state ran psychiatric hospitals had been violated and undermined under the 14th Amendment (La Fond Dulham, 2002). This case had far reaching consequences and interest beyond the state of Alabama. As a matter of fact, Judge Johnsons ruling forever changed the way mental health services would be delivered in the United States of America and beyond (Raskin, 2005). The Wyatt vs. Stickney lawsuit resulted in minimum standards for the care and rehabilitation of people with mental ailments and mental retardation throughout the nation. This lawsuit, filed on October 23, 1970, was finally dismissed on December 5, 2003 (Springer, 2005). In 1970, Bryce State Hospital in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, had 5,200 patient living in inhuman conditions and receiving substandard medical treatment (Johnson Freyer, 2001). Remembering what he had seen in his coverage of the Nazi war trials, Hal Martin- the editor and publisher of The Montgomery Advertiser, went so far as to point out the conditions at Bryce and the state’s other mental health institutions to be similar to those at concentration camps (Yackle, 2004). Few members of the public were conversant with the horrible and deplorable living conditions and treatment of patients in these hospitals. In that year, as earlier indicated, a cigarette tax whose income was aimed at funding mental health services was slashed (Raskin, 2004). As a result, Bryce was forced to fire almost one hundred of its employees. Of the employees fired, 20 were professionals such as psychologists, social workers and occupational therapists. As a result of the layoffs, only one physician catered for about 350 patients, while one nurse catered for 250 patients (Yarbruogh, 2001). The same applied to psychiatrists, whereby one psychiatrist catered for about 1,700 patients (La Fond Dulham, 2002). The staffing ratios and conditions at the Partlow State School and Hospital in Tuscaloosa and the Searcy Hospital in Mount Vernon were worse. At Searcy, only one registered nurse attended to all the 2,500 patients and she was not  permitted to access the male wards (Springer, 2005). This particular lawsuit was filed on October 23, 1970, on behalf of Ricky when the Bryce send offs were carried out (Raskin, 2004). Additionally, the lawsuit emanated from two occurrences in the care and interventions of people with mental illness. The first occurrence involved the research and writing of attorney cum physician Morton Birnbaum who published an article in 1960 entitled The right to treatment (Yarbruogh, 2001). In this article, Birnbaum pointed out that each person in a mental institution had a fundamental right to treatment that would ultimately give the person a chance to be cured or improve his mental condition (Springer, 2005). Birnbaum held the opinion that if the person did not receive appropriate treatment, they were to be released at will despite severe condition of his mental illness. This theory was not used as an enforcement mechanism, or rather, a tool to force adjustments in the treatment and attention given to people with mental illness residing in hospitals and other institutions (Minis Freyer, 2001). The second occurrence that prompted the lawsuit was the rise of a mental health bar, whose goal was to abolish or impose a limited involuntary commitment of people with mental illness to institutions (Minis Freyer, 2001). Fulfillment of Policy Makers Intention The plans and programs for a state hospital for the mentally ill in the state of Alabama began in 1852 (Raskin, 2004). The new facility was planned from the start to utilize the moral architecture concepts of 1830s activist Dorothea Dix. Dixs reformist ideas, in particular, are credited as the ones that played a pivotal role in the construction of the hospital (Weiner Wettstein, 2002). Construction of the building began in 1853 and completed in 1859. The hospital was the first building in Tuscaloosa state with gas lighting and central heating (Yackle, 2004). The Alabama Insane Hospital was opened in 1861. It was later renamed after its first psychiatrist superintendent, Peter Bryce, who was 27 years old (Yarbruogh, 2001). Bryce had been conversant with the hospital through his colleague Dix. His tenure was marked by absolute and diligent discipline among the staff of the hospital (La Fond Dulham, 2002). He demanded and pushed for patients to be treated with courtesy, kindness and respect at all times. The use of shackles and other restraints was effectively discouraged and condemned, and finally abolished altogether in 1882 (Raskin, 2004). Various programs and other activities were in effect encouraged, such as farming, sewing, maintenance and crafts. Between the period 1872 and the early 1880s, some of the patients wrote their own newspaper, The Meteor (Raskin, 2004). These contributions provided a rare and informative look at life in a mental institution in the late 19th century (Springer, 2005). Moving Closer to or Away from Social Welfare Goals? Governor Riley had announced on December 30, 2009, that Bryce Hospital was to relocate to a new facility across McFarland Boulevard in Tuscaloosa, and that the Alabama University was to take over the current Bryce campus. For several years, the university had a parcel of land, which was adjacent to its campus (Minis Freyer, 2001). Riley pointed out that a hospital of about 268 patients had been envisioned but the final size had yet to be arrived at. The deal, approved by Governor Bob Riley and Alabama Department of Mental Health on December 30 thee same year, was worth $72 million for Mental Health to build another hospital. The university was to pay $50 million and Mental Health was to get another $22 million in state bond money (Yackle, 2004). The Alabama university had pledged another $10 million to clean up surrounding environment on the Bryce grounds and restoration of the main hospital building, construction of which started in 1853 (La Fond Dulham, 2002). The state had explored other options to replace Bryce, including the possibility of renovating neighboring Birmingham facility and moving Bryce clients there. Wyatt vs. Stickney lawsuit spanned 33 years. It was the longest running mental health lawsuit in the nation and it helped set standards of care, which have improved and boosted the lives of countless persons with mental illness and mental retardation (Yackle, 2004). Litigation costs to the state over the 33 year time span of the case were estimated at over 15 million dollars. In the year 1970, there were over 8,000 patients in mental illness facilities and over 2,200 residents in mental retardation facilities. In addition, there were fewer than 15,000 persons from both populations who were receiving community based services (Springer, 2005). At present, over 110,000 people with either mental illness or mental retardation are served in community based care and fewer than 1,500 are in state institutions. Implications of Wyatt vs. Stickney This 1970 Alabama case resulted in recognition, for the first time, of the constitutional rights of mentally disabled patients living in state run psychiatric hospitals which were being jeopardized under the 14th Amendment. This case garnered overwhelming interests beyond the state of Alabama.   The ruling forever transformed the way mental health services would be administered. The Wyatt vs. Stickney lawsuit resulted in consideration and introduction of minimum standards for the care and rehabilitation of people with mental ailments and mental retardation. The case was a success since its determination ensured that patients with mental disabilities did not suffer from discrimination and inhuman conditions that they experienced before. Consequently, it brought to an end the sufferance of the mental patients. Ten years after Federal Judge Frank M. Johnson gave the Wyatt vs. Stickney decision in 1972, the case was again scheduled for a hearing in January, 1983. Many of the issues which were in court the previous decade were again considered in the preceding hearing. The issues presently before the court included the motion for diversion of general fund and oil and gas funds to the Department of Mental Health, request for ending of the receivership under which the department presently operated, motion for declaration of the governor as receiver and appointment of a new receiver and fourth, motion for modification and the withdraw of the Wyatt standards to be substituted with other standards. From the original ruling, significant changes occurred at both the national and state levels that in effect affected the outcome of Wyatt. The antecedents of this case were carefully scrutinized in order to understand the decision which will be arrived at. The decision that ultimately occurred in the Wyatt hearings of 1983 had a significant effect on services for the mentally retarded throughout the United States. They included: 1. No patient was to be subjected to any oppressive conditioning or other attempt to alter their behavior by means of painful experience, except under the following conditions: a. A program for invasive conditions has been given by a qualified mental health professional, trained and experienced in the use of aversive conditioning. This directive was to be made in writing with clinical justification and an explanation of which substitute treatments were considered and why they were rejected. The recommendation was to be supported by another qualified mental health professional trained and experienced in invasive conditioning and approved by the superintendent or medical director of the institution. b. The patient has given expressed and informed consent in writing to the administration of the conditioning. It was the responsibility of the treating psychiatrist to provide the patient with full information concerning the nature of the invasive treatment, to assist the patient in understanding the significance of such information, and to consider and identify any barriers to such comprehension (Raskin, 2004). In addition, the written consent signed by the patient was to include a statement of the nature of the treatment consented to, a layout of its purpose, dangers and possible   effects, and a notice to the patient that they have the right to withdraw their consent at any time. 2. No aversive conditioning was to be imposed or administered on any patient without the approval of the Extraordinary Treatment Committee, whose primary responsibility was to determine, after inquiry and interview with the patient, whether the patients consent to such therapy is, in fact, based on knowledge, intelligence, and voluntary and whether the treatment is in the interest of the patient (Springer, 2005). 3. The patient shall be represented throughout the proceedings including the signing of the consent and the meetings of the Extraordinary Treatment Committee, by legal counsel appointed by the Extraordinary Treatment Committee (Springer, 2005). The counsel was to ensure that all considerations mitigating the use of aversive conditioning have been explored and resolved and that the patient was ready to consent to such medical treatment. 4. Written records of consent and approval were to be kept. 5. Aversive conditioning procedures were to be administered only under direct supervision of and in physical presence of a qualified mental health professional trained in aversive conditioning (Yackle, 2004). 6. No patient was to be subjected to aversive conditioning program which attempts to alter socially appropriate behavior or to develop new behavior patterns for the primary purpose of institution (Yackle, 2004). 7. A patient was to withdraw their consent to aversive conditioning at any time and for any reason known to them. Such a withdrawal of consent was to be either oral or written and is to be effected immediately it is written. Conclusion In the lawsuit, some of the psychologists who were laid off were suing the Mental Health Department for their lost jobs and this can be described as another salient feature of the lawsuit. In spite of this, the intention of the plaintiffs to address the welfare of the mental patients was adequately adhered to during the lawsuit. Many people felt and believed that Frank Johnson was the leader and champion in Alabama as the State leadership had proven time and again that they were not able to govern. The suit filed by the psychologists was lost at the Federal Level but allegedly as they were leaving the courtroom, Frank Johnson said that they were missing the critical point, what determines adequate care.

mail vs femail communication styles essays

mail vs femail communication styles essays You say the glass is half-empty; I say the glass is half full. This is the way people communicate daily on a personal level or professional level. Effective communication however, is the ultimate key. As we know, communication is carried on all over the world, in many different languages, slangs, and dialects that have developed over time through the communication process. Perhaps the most obvious difference in achieving effective communication is seen in any culture, or race between males and females. Though not as obvious or radical as two different languages, it is a difference that can be equated to such. Males and females have definite different communication styles, and as a result, we respond differently under various professional, social, and personal situations. Like the book title implies, "Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus" we are very different. We are not from different planets, but why does it seem that way? We are raised under different norms. Is it wrong that we raise our boys and girls differently? That is a question that stems back many years and cannot be answered in this paper. Historic traditions instilled inside all of us that are unconsciously passed down through generation after generation, makes us the people that we are. The key word is UNCONSCIOUSLY. It is part of our culture to treat the sexes differently. In most cultures women have been raised to be more passive than men, and this trait usually sticks with them all through life. From grade school on up, women have been the quiet ones. In school, guys were the ones being loud and obnoxious (remember throwing rocks and dirt at the girls.) Little did they know, that was the male way of saying "I am here, notice me", or "I really like you." Girls would respond with a smile to the guys or say "he is so stupid" to her friends. They use this as a shield for their real feelings and a w ...

Use of force including terrorism Research Paper

Use of force including terrorism - Research Paper Example Terrorist activities include weapons that can achieve all the works that are targeted towards the people. Terrorism is found to the strategy that is adopted by the weaker group to form a conflict and gain what they desire.Being an asymmetric manner of use of force, it involves coercive power with all the benefits of military force given at a meager cost. Terrorist groups are of secretive nature and of relatively low strength. This makes it difficult for their opponents to defend them. Opponents of all terrorist groups struggle and fail to develop a working strategy against them. They cannot often locate the group and cannot therefore fight against them. Terrorists work on a strong motivation which cannot be taken off from their mind by any force. This motivation makes them use force; perform violence and bloodshed without any hesitation. Terrorism is also an effective way to use force and make a conflict as the adversaries often fail to understand the nature of the threat. They would mistake it as a criminal activity and do not undertake the right strategy that would help them fight these groups. Because of these special characteristics of terrorist activities, terrorism has become a popular and effective way of conflict for people who have kept extreme goals before them. No other strategy can make a minority achieve a special territory. Terrorism is the method of use of force adopted by the extremist groups around the globe. However, terrorism is certainly a nebulous strategy. Even the United States government is perplexed when it comes to the matter of terrorism. Recently, multiple attacks aimed at US have been thwarted by the authorities in different countries. Two explosive packages addressed to Chicago-area synagogues have been captured. The plot brings doubt that al-Qaida is launching yet another terrorist attack on US. The US President called the attacks a credible terrorist threat. The US policy of using force, however, is less effective in checking ter rorism. As per the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, law enforcement officers are legally entitled to use force. According to The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), there are five different components in using force: physical, electronic, chemical, impact and firearm. Terrorist attacks are also of different types. First is the type of attack that involves usage of weapons with mass destruction. Next is the kind of terrorist activity that includes weapons of extensive causality. Next type of terrorist activity involves weapons that give mass disruption. Different types of terrorist activities show different types of terrorist intentions. Weapons of mass destruction used by terrorists brings damage on buildings, bridges, cultural places, computer systems, networks, parks and other communication facilities. Such attacks would destroy the major structures of the society. Weapon of mass casualty brings extensive sicknesses and deaths. For example chemical and biological weapons bring mass causality. These types of weapons are termed as weapons of mass (extensive) destruction. These weapons cause economic, political and social damage to the society that is targeted. Moreover there are magnetic pulse weapons that are intended to destroy computer operation. Cyber terrorism makes the computer hacked thereby destroying major government records and economic records (bank records). Agro terrorism is the act of blocking or destroying food supplies, fuel supplies and other major supplies. Terrorist activities include weapons that can achieve all the works that are targeted towards the people. September 11 attack was one of that kind. The attack brought mass destruction of a major infrastructure of the nation (the World Trade Centre and Pentagon). It further brought about mass causality; almost 3000 people were killed. It also made mass disruption. Loss of finance (millions of dollars) because of the absence of World Trade Centre) was one such destruction. Fear of future attack, shutdown

Enzymes in Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Enzymes in Industry - Essay Example It is the aim of this paper to discuss the workings and history of enzymes and to trace its research as well as to give an overview of how enzymes have been incorporated into various facets of industry and as a result make our day- to - day lives much easier. Enzymes are proteinaceous molecules. They catalyze a variety of reactions in the cell and every living organism is dependent on them to function. Being proteins, they are sensitive to the working conditions, like temperature, pH, etc. and often have stringent requirements of these factors in order to function properly. Each enzyme catalyses a specific reaction, and this specificity is one of the hallmarks of an enzyme. In addition, each enzyme also has certain conditions within which it will be active. The conditions vary from enzyme to enzyme, though there is generally a common overlap amongst them. However, some proteins will be more stable than others under condition x than others, or will have a wider range of toleration to circumstances. Enzymes in industry have their roots in the earliest civilizations. Fermentation of grapes to make wine is one of the earliest recorded uses of enzymes. Also recorded is the fermentation of milk to yield cheese and yoghurt. However, though they have been recorded, the significance of the process of fermentation was not looked deeply into for many centuries. People slowly became aware of yeast as a source of this fermenting activity. However it was not until the beginning of the 19th century that enzyme research as a field really took off. The history of enzyme research is given below. History Timeline 1810 - Joseph Gay Lussac discovers that the principle products of sugar decomposition in yeastare ethanol and carbon dioxide. 1835 - Jacob Berzelius postulates the first general theory of chemical catalysis by showing that malt extracts (diastase) were capable of better catalysis of starch hydrolysis than sulfuric acid. Mid 19th century - Pasteur proposes that fermentation can only occur in living cells; he assumes a "vital force" that is capable of this process and says that dead cells cannot catalyse fermentation. J. Liebig opposes this theory, postulating that biological reactions are caused by substances called 'ferments' which are themselves not living organisms. 1864 - Hansen extracts chymosin from calf stomach (rennet) and uses it to ripen and manufacture cheese. This appears to be the first industrial use. 1876 - William Kuhne coins the term "enzyme" in an attempt to emphasize that it is not the yeast but something within its cell that causes fermentation. Late 1800s - Jokichi Takamine is the first person to isolate an enzyme, Takadiastase, from a microbe, Aspergillus oryzae 1894 - Emil Fischer discovers that glycolytic enzymes can distinguish between stereoisomeric sugars leading to the lock- and - key hypothesis. 1897 - Eduard Buchner ends the debate on what causes fermentation by showing that a cell-free yeast extract is still capable of carrying out fermentation. 1917 - Bacterial amylase is used by Boiden and Effront to perform textile desizing. Pre- W.W.I - Otto Rohm uses pancreatic extracts to bate leather. He also later used enzymes in detergents. 1926 - James Sumner crystallizes the enzyme jack bean urease, demonstrating conclusively that enzymes are proteins. Mid- 1930s - John Northrop, Moses Kunitz confirm the proteinaceous nature of enzymes by showing a direct correlation

Konigsberg Bridge Problem

Konigsberg Bridge Problem The earliest paper on graph theory seems to be by Leonard Euler,Solutio problematic ad situs pertinentis,Commentarii Academetarii Scientiarum Imperialist Petropolitanae 8 (1736),128-140.Euler discusses whether or not it is possible to scroll around Konigsberg(later called the Pregolya exactly once. Euler gave the conditions which are necessary to permit such a stroll. Thomas Pennyngton Kirkman (1856) and Wiliam Roman Hamilton (1856) studied trips which certain sites exactly once. History of Euler paths and cycles An Eulerian path is a path in a graph which visits each edge exactly once in the theory graph .so, in the same way, an Eulerian circuit is an Eulerian path which starts and ends on the same vertex. They were first discussing by Leohard Eular while solving the famous Seven Bridges of Konigsberg problem in 1736. Mathematically the problem can be stated like this: Given the graph on the right, is it possible to construct a path (or a cycle for example, a path starting and ending on the same vertex) which visits each edge exactly once Graphs which allow the manufacture of so called Eulerian cycles are called Eulerian graphs. Euler observed that a necessary condition for the existence of Eulerian cycles is that all vertices in the graph have an even degree, and that for an Eulerian path either all, or all but two (i.e., the two endpoint) vertices have an even degree; this means the Konigsberg graph is not Eulerian. Carl Heierholzer published the first complete characterization of Eulerian graphs in 1873, by proving that in fact the Eulerian graphs are exactly the graphs which are connected and where every vertex has an even degree. Example using euler in our daily life is using in the teaching for set theory that widely use in the schools. Another example is to visualizing file system organization.it will allows files to appear in more than one directory in a computers file system. The history of the Konigsberg Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) is considered to have been the father of graph theory. His paper in 1736 on the seven bridges of Konigsberg is considered to have been the foundational paper in the subject. Konigsberg is a town, founded in 1256, that was originally in Prussia. After a stormy history, the town became part of Soviet Union and was renames Kaliningrad in 1946. In any event, during Eulers time the town had seven bridges (named Kramer, Schmiede, Holz, Hohe, Honig, Kottel, and Grunespanning) spanning the Pregel River. Figure 8.1 gives a simplified picture of how the bridges were originally configured (two of the bridges were later destroyed during World War II, and two other demolished by the Russians. History of Hamiltonian: Hamiltonian is introduced by Sir William Rowan Hamilton at 1857. He made a game called around the world and the originally in form of solid called dodecahedron. It has 20corners/for each corner, it called as town. The problem started when the travel started from one city to another city along the edge to arrive at city by only once arrived at one city. This is how the Hamiltonian is appearing. There is example of using Hamiltonian in life such as no-complete, n-cube and traveling salesman problem. Two types of Hamiltonian are Hamiltonian path and Hamiltonian cycle Introduction Path Path is the sequences of alternating vertices and edges. Which begin from a vertex and ended with a vertex. Each vertex is preceded and followed by its endpoints. Simple path Simple path is a path such that all its vertices and edges are distinct. Below is a graph that gives differences between path and simple path. Path 1: v,b,x,h,z(simple path) Path 2 : u,c, w,f,y,g,x,e,d,v(path) Example of path is the way of bus direction from one destination to another destination. In other hand, simple path is a path that no complicated for example the direction from faculty of FTSM to faculty of FUU. Cycle Circle is a circular sequence of alternating vertices and edges. Each edges is preceded and followed by its endpoints. Simple cycle Simple cycle is a cycle such that all its vertices and edges are distinct. Cycle: u,c,w,e,x,g,f,w,d,v,a,u Simple cycle:v,b,x,g,y,f,w,c,u,a,v, Example of using cycle in life is when we travel to another place then come back to our home with using the different ways. Another example in ukm is the bus ways for example bus zone 2 will make a circle to take student and will come back to the initial location where the busy will take a rest. For simple cycle, we always see in sport, such as the court for athletes running especially in event of 400 * 100 meters. Then, we also can see in power plant program that is simple cycle power plant (pp) program. It gives much benefit such as optimized design, reduced engineering costs, short lead times, increase availability and fast startups also high operational flexibility. Connected Graph Connected graph is a graph that there exists a path between all pairs of vertices. If a graph is a directed graph, there exist a path between vertexes to each other that in the graph, is called as strongly connected graph. The examples of disconnected graphs: Example of using connected graph is use in building. For example Menara Berkembar Petronas, there is a bridge to connect the two buildings. Another example is the bridge of Pulau Pinang. First use to connect the island and peninsular Malaysia. Example of disconnected graph is other hand than connected graph. For example the building of one employee is not connected by bridge with another employee. Next, the Island of Sipadan is not connected by a bridge with Borneo land. An Euler path in a graph is a path which traverses each edge of the graph exactly once. An Euler cycle is an Euler path which is contains cycle. If there are no loop graphs, without isolated vertices, the continuation of an Euler path implies the connected of the graph, since traversing every edge of such a graph requires visiting each vertex at least once. But, when the connected graph has an Euler path, one can be constructed by applying Fleurys algorithm. A connected graph has an Euler path if it has exactly zero or two vertices of odd degree. If every vertex has even degree, the graph has an Euler cycle. The definition and properties of Euler paths, cycles and graphs are valid for multigraph as well. The seven bridge of Konigsberg In Konigsberg, Germany, a river ran through the city such that in its centre was an island, and after passing the island, the river broke into two parts. Seven bridges were built, so that the people of the city could get from one part to another part. A crude map of the centre of Konigsberg might look like this: The people wondered whether or not, one could walk around the city in a way that would involve crossing each bridge exactly once. Degree of vertex Term of degree of vertex in graph theory is the number of edges which connected to a vertex. Degree of vertex also known as local degree. The list of all degree of vertex is called as degree sequences. One way to find the number of vertex is count the number of degree for each vertex that endpoint. An easy way is draw a circle around the vertex and count the number of edges that cross the circle. The degree of vertex can be add or even. if the degree of vertex is even, it is known as degree vertex and the other hand, if the degree of vertex is odd, the vertex is called an odd vertex. To find out the degree of graph is by choose the largest degree of vertex. Example graph with have odd and even vertex: Example degree of vertex is application of roundabout because there are many roads that connected. Either the value is odd or even. The road can be representing as edges and the roundabout as the vertex. Another example is the number of use degree of vertex in electrical pole such as the number of wire connected to the one pole. Hamiltonian path: Hamiltonian path is also called as traceable path. Hamiltonian path is a path that visits each vertex exactly one and not repeated for each vertex in a graph. Hamiltonian graph us use to solve a problem when find a path that only visited each vertex only one in a graph. Hamiltonian cycle: Hamiltonian cycle is a cycle that goes through the entire city (vertex) only once for a graph. It cannot be repeated to reach a city for a one cycle except the starting and the ended city. Results of research and real world examples Graphs can be used to represent oil flow in pipes, traffic flow on motorways, transport of pollution by rivers, groundwater movement of contamination, biochemical pathways, and the underground network. The example of Euler path: There are many useful applications to Euler circuits and paths. Networks can be used to solve many difficult problems, like the Konigsberg Bridge problem. The can also used by mail carrier who wants to have a route where they do not retrace any of their previous steps. Other than that, Euler circuits and paths are also useful to painters, garbage collector, airplanes pilots and world navigators. Below are the examples of how Euler circuit and paths are useful in the real world. The maps that pilots use are called route maps. The route maps show the paths of the airplanes from one destination to another. Here is an example of actual route map. The centre for all travel with this airline is in Denver, Colorado. From there, we can travel to some of the major cities in the surrounding states. The Navigation below is a trip to see all different regions of the world. The above regions of the world have all been given different colors. Each region also has been given marked with a node or vertex and some (but not all) of the regions are connected with arcs. Conclusions and recommendations As the conclusion towards this particular project, the study of graphs and their properties is a classical subject in most computer science department around the world. Graph Theory can be further exploited by object-oriented software engineering, taking advantage of recent research in various fields. Other than that, Graph theory is one of the top reasons to learn linear Algebra. So, all graphs (included directed, weighted, and multi-graphs) can be represented intuitive by adjency matrices, and matrix operations often end up being meaningful in terms of graph they represent. Seeing the connection between a graph and its matrix helps to understand both of them, and being able to switch back and forth between mental models is often useful. For example, a person in many fields of modeling, are mostly easily thought of the weight graphs, and are most easily manipulated as matrices. By learning the entire graph, the student can get many benefits by it especially the computer science student. So, our recommendation towards this topic in order to make the student easy to learn and improve themselves are for example, ask the student to make a lot of exercise. Other than that, ask them to make an assignment about this topic. So that the student can search many information based on this topic and become more familiar and understand about graph theory

The Moon :: essays research papers

The moon   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The moon is the only natural satellite of Earth. The moon orbits the Earth from 384,400 km and has an average speed of 3700 km per hour. It has a diameter of 3476 km, which is about  ¼ that of the Earth and has a mass of 7.35e22 kg. The moon is the second brightest object in the sky after the sun. The gravitational forces between the Earth and the moon cause some interesting effects; tides are the most obvious. The moon has no atmosphere, but there is evidence by the United States Department of Defense Clementine spacecraft shows that there maybe water ice in some deep craters near the moon's North and South Pole that are permanently shaded. Most of the moon's surface is covered with regolith, which is a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris produced by meteor impact. There are two types of terrain on the moon. One is the heavily cratered and very old highlands. The other is the relatively smooth and younger craters that were flooded with molten lava. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, visual exploration through powerful telescopes has yielded a fairly comprehensive picture of the visible side of the moon. The hitherto unseen far side of the moon was first revealed to the world in October 1959 through photographs made by the Soviet Lunik III spacecraft. These photographs showed that the far side of the moon is similar to the near side except that large lunar maria are absent. Craters are now known to cover the entire moon, ranging in size from huge, ringed maria to those of microscopic size. The entire moon has about 3 trillion craters larger than about 1 m in diameter. The moon shows different phases as it moves along its orbit around the earth. Half the moon is always in sunlight, just as half the earth has day while the other half has night. The phases of the moon depend on how much of the sunlit half can be seen at any one time. In the new moon, the face is completely in shadow. About a week later, the moon is in first quarter, resembling a half-circle; another week later, the full moon shows its fully lighted surface; a week afterward, in its last quarter, the moon appears as a half-circle again. The entire cycle is repeated each lunar month, which is approximately 29.